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Encyclopedia Of Hydrocarbons Eni Pdf To Jpg Converter
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Hydrocarbon and kerogen accumulation formation diagram.Subsequently, due to the continuous growth of organic sediments, there is a natural rise in temperature that reaches approx. The temperature rise in the parent rock causes the progressive “rupture” of the molecular bonds, transforming the kerogen into simpler compounds: hydrocarbons. Depending on the temperature, the kerogen can be transformed into liquid hydrocarbons (at lower temperatures) or gaseous hydrocarbons (at higher temperatures). At this point, since the hydrocarbons have a lower density than water, once generated, they migrate upward through the pores in the rocks. When they encounter impermeable rock layers, the reservoir or “oil trap”, the hydrocarbons are blocked and accumulate.What are surface oil manifestations?Migration of the oil in the vertical direction has often resulted in the formation of surface oil manifestations.
If during the ascent, in fact, the hydrocarbons meet only porous rocks, cracks and water connections, they may seep to the surface. A prerequisite for a manifestation to occur is that the quantity of hydrocarbons present can be identified directly on the ground and not by means of particular chemical analyses. A: Manifestation at the edge of the basin. B and C: inside the basin in correspondence with the faults. D: in contact with a salt dome.
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E: igneous intrusion. F: erosion phenomenon. G: discrepancy.
Examples of surface oil manifestations. The arrow indicates the direction of migration and seepage of the hydrocarbons, while the deep accumulation in the rock-reservoir is marked in black (source: ).Surface oil manifestations are divided into active, or live, and fossil, or dead, manifestations. The former are gaseous and liquid are and remain active due to a continuous supply of hydrocarbons (such as in the case of Tramutola). The latter are solid and are the product of migrations that occurred in the past.The natural seeps of TramutolaThe natural seeps of hydrocarbons at the Tramutola site are liquid and naphthalene manifestations. They consist of a drippage of oil due to its ascent from shallow levels (the oilfield is at a depth of approx. 300-400 metres) along fractures in the rock.
The oil is associated with water and natural gas (primarily methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide). The manifestations essentially consist of more or less oxidised dark or blackish, very viscous or even doughy oils that do not evaporate. Natural hydrocarbon manifestation – Tramutola. Photo: Dario Colucci.These spontaneous manifestations were, and still are, evident mainly in a small valley which hosts a tributary stream of the Rio Cavolo, the Torrente Fossatello, situated east of the village of Tramutola. They are therefore situated inside marly-arenaceous siliciclastic soils (historically called “Eocene flysch auct.”), in the vicinity of the (tectonic) contact between the same and the Mesozoic carbonate reliefs that form the hill of the West bank of the stream. Natural hydrocarbon manifestation – Tramutola. Photo: Dario Colucci.The hydrocarbons and the sulphur water mingle with the clean water of the stream until they enter the main stream of the Rio Cavolo, in turn a tributary of the Agri River, which contributes to replenishing the “Pietra del Pertusillo” reservoir.Tramutola: historical notes of legends and written proofVal d’Agri has been known since ancient times for its surface manifestations of hydrocarbons.
According to certain local stories, it appears that in Tramutola such manifestations were known for some time: it seems that the local population had a certain familiarity with a blackish substance with a peculiar smell and that seeped to the surface near the Rio Cavolo forming oily stains. This information, however, is not present in the documents of the time, not even in the reports produced by the Benedictine monks, present in the area from the mid-12th century. Only in the nineteenth century do we find the first written mention of the columns of fire spontaneously spurting from the Apennine mountains, a sign of the presence of small reserves of methane gas underground, or of the natural emission of hydrocarbons from the ground of the region, also following the disastrous earthquake of 1857 with epicentre in Val d’Agri.The earthquake and the first written proofThere are, in the documents of the time, mentions of columns of gas seen spurting out near Salandra a month before and a few days after the earthquake of 1857. Historians and scholars such as Racioppi and Del Giudice speak of changes in the land before and after the earthquake, of the smell of bitumen and sulphur before and after the event and luminous globes and columns, or in any case lights, seen near Viggiano, but also in the proximity of other towns, of changes in springs and wells. In the French weekly L ’ Illustration: Journal Universel, published from 1843 to 1944, various prints related to the earthquake of 1857 were published at the time of the quake. In one of these prints, reference is made to sulphur springs created after the earthquake. Prints taken from the magazine L’Illustration: Journal Universel and depicting the sulphur springs created with the earthquake of 16 December 1857 in Val d’Agri.
Source: Casa Museo Moliterno – Domenico Aiello.No mention, however, was made of the seeps in Tramutola, not even by the Irish geophysicist Robert Mallet during his study and exploration journey caused by the earthquake of 1857. Only in 1860 was a first reference to the seeps in Tramutola made (“the asphalt of Marsico and Tramutola in Basilicata») by the geographer, historian and politician Amato Amati. In 1878 and 1879, a study of Basilicata was then published in which there was a description of the oil manifestations in the region and in Val d’Agri, without, however, exploring the case of Tramutola specifically but only mentioning the presence of hydrocarbons. In the early twentieth century, the presence of seepage was well known and documented, also in 1908 based on the observations made between 1888 and 1892. A sample of the fuel had in any case already been presented at the Paris Universal Exposition in 1878 (even though, in the official exhibition catalogue, reference was only made to samples from Rivazzano, in the province of Pavia). At the end of the nineteenth century, however, the phenomenon had certainly been observed and studied, so much so that in 1902 there was talk of mining engineers, both Italian and foreign, who verified the presence of an oilfield in the Valle del Cavolo.The studies of the early twentieth centuryThe first scientific study entirely dedicated to Tramutola dates back to 1902.
That year, an engineer called Crema, at the request of the Inspectorate of the Royal Corps of Mines, conducted a number of studies in order to carry out a general exploration of the oil manifestations in certain areas of Tramutola. Thus a “small source of water mixed with oil emitted in small quantities but continuously” was observed, while other manifestations of lesser importance were found at the mouth of the river Cavolo. In 1909 the City Council passed a resolution for drilling assays to be carried out in the Tramutola oil field. In 1912, the company Petroli d’Italia concluded a license agreement for the exploration and exploitation of deposits that might be found under the municipality with eighty-seven owners in Tramutola. Drilling began in 1920, reaching a depth of 144 metres. Drilling was then suspended in order to work to regulate the flow of water found, while in 1922 the excavation was abandoned with the intent to resume it in another area. Starting from the second half of the 1920s, aided by the autarchic and expansionist ambitions of the fascist regime, oil exploration in the Tramutola area experienced a new lease of life.
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Subsequently, Mr. Crema carried out surveys, ensuring that the hydrocarbons tracks in Basilicata were not only focused on the area of Tramutola but also on the area of Cersosimo. Subsequently, there were various events related to creating regulations governing oil exploration, also from the economic-financial point of view, and only in 1931 was further analysis in this regard possible. The geologist Guido Bonarelli was the first to foresee the oil potential of the region.
Bonarelli identified, in the lower valley of the Rio Cavolo, six types of visible oil manifestations with gassing hydrocarbons and “semi-light oil, rich in lubricants and with an aromatic smell”.In 1933, Agip carried out research in the area, identifying the presence of hydrocarbons, resulting in drilling and the creation of 47 wells between 1936 and 1943. After 1945-46, however, the activities were gradually dismantled. Only in 1957, Naples University Professor Antonio Lazzari carried out a new study of Tramutola, indicating the importance of carrying out research in the area between Valle del Cavolo and Valle La Monica.
Agip carried out a new survey and a new excavation West of Tramutola, without, however, following the indications of Lazzari, but it all ended with renouncing the Tramutola license since the well proved sterile. Following these events, oil prospecting and activities in Basilicata were put aside. Only as a result of exploration of the deep traps in the early 1980’s was the value of the Val d’Agri subsoil demonstrated.Coexistence of the ecosystem and oil: the Tramutola case todayThe peculiarity of the seepage phenomenon and the naturalness of the Tramutola site still today arouse great interest in both the observer who visits these places and in the scientific community. The latter is particularly interested in studying the adaptation phenomena, in order to understand which processes are put in place by organisms to survive the presence of hydrocarbons. Natural seeps of hydrocarbons may in fact be considered a living laboratory to study how natural processes affect the fate of hydrocarbons and how living organisms are able to survive in the presence of these substances. Frog spotted near the Tramutola seeps.
Photo: Dario Colucci.Bacteria, plants and animals, in an environment chronically characterised by the presence of hydrocarbons, do not passively suffer the effects of an environmental transformation but put in place a series of expedients that tend to rebuild a new balance. In this way, an unusual habitat for plants and animals is created. There are frequent sightings of frogs around the seeps and pioneer plants of the Equisetum species, but special attention should be paid to bacteria, the smallest form of life that exists.
.Part of thebook series (HEC, volume 54) AbstractThis chapter studies the basic physiographical and oceanographical peculiarities of the Adriatic Sea. It describes in brief the islands, coasts, relief, and bottom sediments. It provides the general hydrometeorological characteristics (wind, waves, and precipitations). Special attention is focused on the hydrological regime of the sea (water masses, currents, temperature, and salinity). In addition, it dwells on the present-day development of the Adriatic Sea, i.e., tourism, fishery, mariculture, hydrocarbon production, and shipping.
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